Essentials of Adolescent Literacy

Literacy skills are essential for academic success in school, in postsecondary education and the workforce, as well as for effective communication in our personal lives.

As students progress through middle and high school, the level of literacy required increases significantly to meet the growing demands of reading and writing across content areas. Adolescents must learn from texts that are substantially longer and more complex than those encountered in earlier grades, with increased difficulty at the word, sentence, and structural levels. These texts present greater conceptual challenges and
require a higher level of information synthesis.

By middle school, it is often assumed that students have mastered foundational writing skills. As a result, they are expected to use writing to support learning and to complete sophisticated tasks, some of which are discipline-specific.

However, many students leave elementary grades without grade-level reading and writing proficiency. Literacy difficulties that emerge in the elementary years may persist into later grades or, in some cases, first appear during adolescence. Students who lack grade-level literacy skills are at a significant disadvantage in achieving academic success.

What is adolescent literacy?

The term adolescent literacy is defined differently by experts in the field. Some researchers suggest it begins in Grade 4, based on the idea students “learn to read” through Grade 3 and then transition to “reading to learn” beginning in Grade 4 (Chall, 1983). Others use the term to describe literacy instruction in middle and high school, also referred to as secondary literacy.

Within a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) framework, Tier 1 literacy instruction refers to the core curriculum and programs used to teach reading and writing to all students, ensuring they meet or exceed grade-level expectations. Students who struggle require Tier 2 supplemental and Tier 3 intensive intervention (Zhang et al., 2023).

In the elementary grades, instruction focuses on the five components of reading along with foundational writing skills. Beginning in Grade 5, Tier 1 instruction shifts towards literacy for learning–the content literacy skills needed to access and engage with material across subject areas. These include vocabulary development, comprehension strategies, understanding text structure, advanced writing skills, and effective speaking and listening skills for classroom discussions (Kamil et al., 2008). These skills are often taught in an integrated manner using content-area texts and practices.

Teachers across all subject areas are responsible for providing Tier I instruction. Additionally, intervention for struggling readers and writers should target specific skill deficits. For reading, this may include phonics and fluency instruction; for writing, it may include sentence construction and paragraph development (Vaughn et al., 2022).

Levels of Adolescent Literacy Instruction

Adolescent literacy instruction must address both general content-area literacy and the specialized literacy practices unique to individual disciplines, often referred to as disciplinary literacy.

Content literacy includes the skills, strategies, and routines used across subject areas, sometimes called generic or study skills (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2012; Fagella-Luby, 2012; Shanahan, 2017). Decades of research support the integration of general reading and writing strategies into content-area instruction (Brozo, 2013; Hwang et al., 2021).

Disciplinary literacy refers to the ways experts in specific fields (e.g., science, history, mathematics, literature) use specialized knowledge and skills to read, write, think, and communicate (Shanahan, 2012; Goldman et al., 2016).

Sedita (2021) proposed a model of middle and high school literacy instruction that includes both content and disciplinary literacy as Tier 1 instruction, while basic skills instruction is delivered through Tier 2 or Tier 3 interventions for struggling students (see Figure A).

Adolescent Literacy Research

Although more research has historically focused on elementary literacy, a substantial body of evidence now supports effective practices for adolescent literacy instruction. Keys research reports and guides are listed below.

• Improving Adolescent Literacy: Effective Classroom and Intervention Practices (Kamil et al., 2008)
• Teaching Secondary Students to Write Effectively (Graham et al., 2016)
• Writing to Read: Evidence for How Writing Can Improve (Graham & Hebert, 2010)
• Reading Next (Biancarosa & Snow, 2006)
• Writing Next (Graham & Perin, 2007)
• Providing Reading Interventions for Students in Grades 4-9 (Vaughn et al., 2022)

Evidence-Based Instruction Recommendations for Tier 1

Reading

The report by Kamil et al., (2008), listed in Figure B, presents findings from a large-scale meta-analysis of adolescent reading research. Subsequent studies have confirmed its recommendations

1. Provide explicit vocabulary instruction.
2. Provide direct and explicit comprehension strategy instruction.
3. Provide opportunities for extended discussion of text meaning and interpretation.
4. Increase student motivation and engagement in literacy learning.
5. Make available intensive and individualized interventions for struggling readers that can be provided by trained specialists.

Writing

The report by Graham et al. (2016) focuses on writing instruction and recommends:

1. Explicitly teach appropriate writing strategies using a Model-Practice-Reflect instructional cycle.
2. Integrate writing and reading to emphasize key writing features.
3. Use assessments of students’ writing to inform instruction and feedback.

Support for Struggling Adolescents

Adolescents struggle with literacy for a variety of reasons, and the severity of difficulties varies widely across Grade 5-12. A one-size-fits-all approach to intervention is ineffective because students differ in the specific reading and writing components that require support.

The goal of intervention instruction is to accelerate literacy development so students can make meaningful progress toward grade-level proficiency. Interventions should address specific areas of need based on individual student profiles.

Intervention Research

The report by Vaughn et al. (2022) provides the following recommendations for reading intervention:

1. Build students’ decoding skills so they can read complex multisyllabic words.
2. Provide purposeful fluency-building activities to help students read effortlessly.
3. Routinely use a set of comprehension-building practices to help students make sense of the text.
   • Build students’ world and word knowledge so they can make sense of the text.
   • Consistently provide students with opportunities to ask and answer questions to better understand the text they read.
   • Teach students a routine for determining the gist of a short section of text.
   • Teach students to monitor their comprehension as they read.
4. Provide students with opportunities to practice making sense of stretch text (i.e., challenging text) that will expose them to complex ideas and information).

Characteristics of Effective Interventions

Intervention is essential for helping struggling adolescents make meaningful progress. Research identified several key characteristics of effective instruction (Kamil et al., 2008; Vaughn et al., 2012; Wanzek et al., 2013; Vaughn et al., 2022):

• Smaller instructional group sizes
• Increased intervention instruction time, including greater frequency and duration and longer instructional sessions
• Individualized instruction based on student needs
• Explicit, systematic teaching with guided practice and feedback
• Use of evidence-based programs and practices
• Access to grade-level curriculum content alongside peers
• Integration of intervention with content-area instruction

Reading Assessment (Grades 5-12)

Placement in intervention begins with a screening assessment to identify students who have reading difficulties, followed by diagnostic assessment to determine their strengths and areas of need. Assessment practices for adolescents differ from those used in elementary grades.

In elementary school, students are learning all five components of reading. Screening assessments are therefore used to determine whether students meet grade-level benchmarks in phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.

By Grade 5, students who can read and understand grade-level texts are generally assumed to have adequate foundational skills, including phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and basic comprehension strategies. As a result, screening at this level should primarily focus on identifying students who struggle with reading comprehension (Sedita, 2024). Students who demonstrate adequate comprehension typically do not require further evaluation. However, those who struggle should receive diagnostic assessments to identify specific areas requiring intervention.

Once students have been identified for intervention, progress monitoring should be conducted regularly throughout the school year. These assessments help determine whether instruction is effective or whether adjustments to the instructional plan are needed.

Summary

Adolescent literacy is critical for success in school, particularly as students face increasing reading and writing demands. As they encounter more complex texts, they are expected to apply advanced literacy skills across all subject areas. Instruction in Grades 5–12 emphasizes both content knowledge and disciplinary literacy skills, taught by teachers across subjects. Differentiated intervention is necessary for students who struggle with reading and writing, based on their individual needs. Additionally, a screening and diagnostic assessment plan—distinct from those used in elementary grades—is required to identify these students and determine the most appropriate intervention.

References

Biancarosa, C., & Snow, C. E. (2006). Reading next—A vision for action and research in middle and high school literacy: A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York (2nd ed.). Alliance for Excellent Education.

Brozo, W. G., Moorman, G., Meyer, C., & Stewart, T. (2013). Content area reading and disciplinary literacy: A case for the radical center. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 56(5).

Chall, J. S. (1983). Stages of reading development. McGraw-Hill.

Faggella-Luby, M. N., Graner, P. S., Deshler, D. D., & Drew, S. V. (2012). Building a house on sand: Why disciplinary literacy is not sufficient to replace general strategies for adolescent learners who struggle. Topics in Language Disorders, 32(1), 69–84.

Goldman, S., Britt, M., Brown, W., Cribb, G., George, M., Greenleaf, C., Lee, C., Shanahan, C., & Project READI. (2016). Disciplinary literacies and learning for understanding: A conceptual framework for disciplinary literacy. Educational Psychologist, 51(2), 219–241.

Graham, S., & Hebert, M. A. (2010). Writing to read: Evidence for how writing can improve reading. Alliance for Excellent Education.

Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve the writing of adolescents in middle and high schools—A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Alliance for Excellent Education.

Graham, S., Bruch, J., Fitzgerald, J., Friedrich, L., Furgeson, J., Greene, K., Kim, J., Lyskawa, J., Olson, C. B., & Smither Wulsin, C. (2016). Teaching secondary students to write effectively (NCEE 2017-4002). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

Hwang, H., Cabell, S. Q., & Joyner, R. E. (2021). Effects of integrated literacy and content-area instruction on vocabulary and comprehension in the elementary years: A meta-analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 26(3), 223–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2021.1954005

Kamil, M. L., Borman, G. D., Dole, J., Kral, C. C., Salinger, T., & Torgesen, J. (2008). Improving adolescent literacy: Effective classroom and intervention practices: A practice guide (NCEE 2008-4027). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

Sedita, J. (2021). Adolescent literacy: Components of literacy in an MTSS model. Keys to Literacy. https://vimeo.com/554738543

Sedita, J. (2024). Reading assessment model, grades 5–12. Keys to Literacy. https://keystoliteracy.com/blog/reading-assessment-model-grades-5-12/

Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2012). What is disciplinary literacy and why does it matter? Topics in Language Disorders, 32(1), 7–18.

Shanahan, T. (2017). Disciplinary literacy: The basics. Shanahan on Literacy. https://www.shanahanonliteracy.com/blog/disciplinary-literacy-the-basics

Vaughn, S., Wanzek, J., Murray, C. S., & Roberts, G. (2012). Intensive interventions for students struggling in reading and mathematics: A practice guide. RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.

Vaughn, S., Gersten, R., Dimino, J., Taylor, M. J., Newman-Gonchar, R., Krowka, S., Kieffer, M. J., McKeown, M., Reed, D., Sanchez, M., St. Martin, K., Wexler, J., Morgan, S., Yañez, A., & Jayanthi, M. (2022). Providing reading interventions for students in Grades 4–9 (WWC 2022007). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

Wanzek, J., Vaughn, S., Scammacca, N. K., Metz, K., Murray, C. S., Roberts, G., & Danielson, L. (2013). Extensive reading interventions for students with reading difficulties after grade 3. Review of Educational Research, 82(2).

Zhang, J., Martella, R. C., Kang, S., & Yenioglu, B. Y. (2023). Response to intervention (RTI)/multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS): A nationwide analysis. Journal of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, 7(2).